“Ruling the Countryside” in Class 8 History explores the various strategies and policies implemented by the British to control and manage the rural areas of India. This chapter examines the key revenue systems, the impact on agriculture, and the resultant social and economic changes.

Diwani Rights: Granted by the Mughal Emperor in 1765, the East India Company became the Diwan of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, giving them the right to collect revenue.

Administrative Control: The Company began to directly administer these regions and introduced several revenue policies to maximize revenue collection.

Diwani Rights as a Tool for Control: The Diwani rights granted to the East India Company allowed them not only to collect revenue but also to gain administrative control over Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This move laid the foundation for their subsequent expansion in India.

Introduction: Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793, the Permanent Settlement was a land revenue system implemented in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

Features:

• Fixed Revenue: The revenue was permanently fixed, and zamindars (landowners) were responsible for collecting it from peasants.
• Zamindar’s Role: Zamindars were made hereditary owners of the land, and they had to pay a fixed amount to the British annually.

Impact:

• Advantage for Zamindars: They gained significant control and often exploited peasants.
• Disadvantage for Peasants: Peasants faced high rents and harsh conditions.

Introduction: Introduced in the Madras Presidency by Thomas Munro in the early 19th century.

Features:

• Direct Collection: The British collected revenue directly from the peasants (ryots).
• Assessment: Revenue was assessed based on the quality of the soil and the crop yield.

Impact:

• Peasant’s Role: Peasants had ownership rights, but they faced high taxes.
• Administrative Burden: The system required a large administrative setup.

Introduction: Introduced in the North-Western Provinces, Punjab, and parts of Central India by Holt Mackenzie in 1822.

Features:

• Village as a Unit: Revenue was assessed for the entire village (mahal), which collectively paid the taxes.
• Role of Village Headmen: Village headmen were responsible for collecting and paying the revenue to the British.

Impact:

• Collective Responsibility: The system emphasized collective responsibility, but it also led to exploitation by village elites.

Recognition: The British recognized local rajas and taluqdars as zamindars, giving them the responsibility to collect revenue and maintain order in their areas.

Strategic Alliances: By recognizing local rajas and taluqdars as zamindars, the British secured alliances with local power holders, which helped them in maintaining control over vast territories with minimal resistance.

Introduction: The British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like indigo, opium, and cotton to supply raw materials for their industries.

Impact:

• Shift in Crop Patterns: Farmers were forced to grow cash crops instead of food crops.
• Debt and Poverty: Farmers fell into debt due to fluctuating market prices and high taxes.

Demand for Cash Crops: European demand for Indian raw materials led to the commercialization of agriculture.

Examples: Indigo for dyeing textiles, opium for export to China, and cotton for British textile mills.

Economic Dependency: The cultivation of cash crops like indigo, opium, and cotton created an economic dependency on European markets. This dependency made Indian agriculture vulnerable to global market fluctuations, which often led to economic instability for Indian farmers.

Textile Industry: Indigo was in high demand in Europe due to its vibrant blue color, which was used to dye textiles.

Competition: Indian indigo was more cost-effective compared to European alternatives, leading to higher demand.

Planters: European planters forced Indian peasants to grow indigo on their land.

Methods:

• Nij Cultivation: Planters directly managed large estates where indigo was grown.
• Ryoti System: Peasants were forced to grow indigo on a portion of their land under oppressive contracts.

Impact:

• Peasant Suffering: Peasants faced harsh working conditions and were paid very low prices for indigo.
• Indigo Rebellion (1859-60): Widespread resistance by peasants against indigo planters.

Ryoti System: Peasants (ryots) were compelled to grow indigo on part of their land under exploitative contracts with planters.

Oppression: Peasants were often forced to grow indigo instead of food crops, leading to economic hardships.

Production Process: Indigo production involved sowing, harvesting, fermenting, and processing the indigo plant to extract dye.

Labor Intensive: The process was labor-intensive and required significant investment in terms of time and effort.

The Rebellion: The indigo farmers rebelled against the oppressive policies of the indigo planters in 1859-60.

Outcome:

• The rebellion forced the British to set up an Indigo Commission to investigate the grievances.
• The cultivation of indigo declined, and many planters moved to other crops.

Impact on Handicrafts: The British policies led to the decline of traditional Indian industries like weaving and handicrafts.

Reason: Cheap British manufactured goods flooded the Indian market, leading to the collapse of local industries.

Impact on Local Industries: The influx of cheap British manufactured goods led to the decline of traditional Indian industries like weaving and handicrafts. This deindustrialization had long-term socio-economic impacts, reducing employment opportunities and craftsmanship in rural areas.

Reasons:

• High Revenue Demands: Excessive revenue demands left peasants with little to sustain themselves.
• Commercialization of Agriculture: Focus on cash crops reduced the availability of food grains.

Impact: Frequent famines and widespread poverty in rural India.

Introduction: The British established a civil service system to administer their policies efficiently.

Role: Civil servants were responsible for implementing revenue policies and maintaining law and order in the countryside. This system also aimed to create a loyal and efficient administrative cadre that would implement British policies without question.

Court System: The British established a court system to resolve disputes and enforce their laws.

Codification of Laws: The British introduced legal and judicial reforms, including the establishment of courts and the codification of laws. These reforms aimed to create a uniform legal system but often disregarded traditional and local customs.

Dharmashastras: Ancient Indian texts used as a basis for making laws and regulations.

Qazi and Mufti: Islamic judicial officers involved in administering justice based on Islamic law.

Reasons for Resistance: High taxes, exploitation by zamindars and planters, and harsh working conditions.

Forms of Resistance: Non-payment of taxes, social boycotts, and violent rebellions.

Cause: Oppression by indigo planters.

Course of Rebellion: Widespread protest and refusal to grow indigo.

Outcome: Establishment of the Indigo Commission and decline in indigo cultivation.

Activity: Examine a historical document or record related to British revenue policies and discuss its significance and impact.

Example: Analyze a record from the Permanent Settlement and discuss its impact on peasants and zamindars.

Exercise: Create a timeline of key events and policies that impacted agriculture in British India.

Example: Include the introduction of the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System, and the Indigo Rebellion.

The chapter “Ruling the Countryside” provides a comprehensive understanding of the British agrarian policies and their impact on Indian agriculture and society. It covers key revenue systems, the commercialization of agriculture, and the resultant social and economic changes.

Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis, this system fixed the land revenue permanently.

Indigo Rebellion (1859-60): A rebellion by indigo farmers against the oppressive policies of the planters.

Impact of British Policies: The British agrarian policies had a profound impact on Indian agriculture, leading to commercialization, exploitation, and resistance.

Role of Revenue Systems: The revenue systems implemented by the British significantly altered the agrarian landscape and socio-economic conditions in rural India.